A First Look at the Second Metamorphosis of Science
نویسنده
چکیده
f o r m e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e , t h a t w e r e l a r g e l y t h e h e r i t a g e f r o m t h e t i m e o f A r i s t o t l e , i n t o i t s m o d e r n f o r m . T h e s e n e w f o u n d a t i o n s c o n s i s t e d o f t h e u s e o f ( 1 ) P h y s i c a l E x p e r i m e n t s a n d t h e u s e o f ( 2 ) M a t h e m a t i c a l M o d e l s , i n v o l v i n g d i ff e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s . T h i s m e t a m o r p h o s i s w a s l a r g e l y d u e t o B r a h e , K e p l e r , G a l i l e o , N e w t o n , L e i b n i z , E u l e r , a n d L a g r a n g e . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n a l m e t h o d s w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s e v e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l a t t i t u d e s a n d b e l i e f s . O n e a t t i t u d e ( a n i m p l i c i t b u t o p e r a t i v e f r a m e o f m i n d ) a r o s e f r o m t h e l o s s o f c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s ; t h a t i s , a n i n c r e a s e d i d e n t i fi c a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d w i t h t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s u s e d t o m a k e v e r y l i m i t e d p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h a t w o r l d . T h e m o r e o v e r t p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e l i e f s r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r o f r e d u c t i o n i s t i c m e t h o d s i n s c i e n c e . A m o n g t h e s e b e l i e f s w a s t h e i d e a t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s y n t h e s i z e t h i s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c k n o w l e d g e , t h e r e b y o b t a i n i n g a t h e o r y o f t h e u n i v e r s e , c a p a b l e o f p r e d i c t i n g a l l p h e n o m e n a i n n a t u r e . T h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e i s i n d e e d a n y s u c h t h i n g a s o n e s e t o f l a w s w h i c h g o v e r n t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e u n i v e r s e h a s i t s o r i g i n s i n a n t i q u i t y , w h e r e t h e l a w s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o t h e d e s i r e s o f a g o d . T h i s b e l i e f w a s i m m e a s u r a b l y r e i n f o r c e d w i t h i n S c i e n c e b y t h e s u c c e s s o f N e w t o n ’ s ‘ u n i v e r s a l l a w ’ o f g r a v i t a t i o n . T h e b l e n d i n g o f t h e s e p e r s u a s i o n s w a s p e r h a p s c a p t u r e d b e s t , i n t e n d e d o r n o t , i n E i n s t e i n ’ s f a m o u s r e m a r k , “ I s h a l l n e v e r b e l i e v e t h a t G o d p l a y s d i c e w i t h
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